第一章　僧团的形成与戒律¶

参考文献

1. I. B. Horner (trans.). The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), 6 vols. London: Pali Text Society, 1938–1966. ↩

2. Vinaya Piṭaka, Mahāvagga I（大品第一犍度）；参 I. B. Horner (trans.), The Book of the Discipline, vol. 4. London: Pali Text Society, 1951. 受戒形式演变见 Mv I.6、I.12 与 I.28：先为 ehi bhikkhu 式（Mv I.6，佛一语"来，比丘"即成受具），次许三归受具（Mv I.12），末乃改为白四羯磨，且明文废止前式（Mv I.28.3–6，Horner 卷四书内第 72–73 页），谓"我先前所许的三归受具，自今日起废止；今许以白四羯磨受具"（yā sā…tīhi saraṇagamanehi upasampadā anuññātā, taṃ ajjatagge paṭikkhipāmi. Anujānāmi, bhikkhave, ñatticatutthena kammena upasampādetuṃ）。受戒之权由佛个人的认可移交僧团的程序，律藏自记其交接。 ↩↩

3. Uma Chakravarti. The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987. 种姓与僧团构成见第三、四章。 ↩

4. 与本书判断相反的读法，在近代佛教复兴运动里很典型，可并存参看。达摩波罗（Anagārika Dharmapāla）〈A Pilgrimage to Ancient Indian Buddhist Sites〉一文径称："Vedas are not for the low-caste and Sudras. Only the twiceborn can study them. There is therefore, no universality in them. Buddha repudiated caste and he welcomed the casteless, He made an absolute sacrifice of self, and taught the doctrine to the ignorant masses."（casteless 后原文确作逗号，非句点。）见 Ananda Guruge 编 Return to Righteousness: A Collection of Speeches, Essays and Letters of the Anagarika Dharmapala. Colombo: Government Press, 1965，此段在书内第 571 页；该文起讫为书内第 563 至 572 页，篇末自注出《摩诃菩提会刊》1889 年六七月号，此本转录自 M. B. J. 第 40 卷 1932 年四五月号。此说把佛陀直接读成反种姓者，其语境是十九世纪末锡兰的佛教复兴与对印度低种姓的传教诉求；本书取它作为"佛陀如何被后世读成反种姓者"的例证，不取作早期僧团实况的证据。此段据原书页图核对，页码依原书。 ↩

5. Sukumar Dutt. Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1962, pp. 53–64. ↩

6. Charles S. Prebish. Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit Prātimokṣa Sūtras of the Mahāsāṃghikas and Mūlasarvāstivādins. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975；戒条逐次增订与上座部 227 条，见该书书内 23 页：“some evidence that the earliest form of the code contained a considerably smaller number of rules than the final form… In its final form this Pātimokkha contains 227 rules”。各部条数的对照，见 W. Pachow. A Comparative Study of the Prātimokṣa，书内 11 页对照表（此表据原书页图读得）：巴利 227、法藏部（Dharmagupta and Comm.）250、化地部 251、饮光部 246、大众部 218；说一切有部一系诸本自 241 至 263 不等，根本说一切有部（Mūlasarvāstivādin & Comm.）作 248，藏译本作 258。藏译本 258 之数另见 Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana. "So-sor-thar-pa, or a Code of Buddhist Monastic Laws, Being the Tibetan Version of Prātimokṣa of the Mūla-sarvāstivāda School." Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, n.s. 11 (1915): 29–139，书内第 31 页："So-sor-thar-pa contains 258 rules"（此句据原书页图读得）。正文原作"根本说一切有部 253 条"，上举二本皆不载此数，今从二本改。表列八类为波罗夷、僧残、不定、尼萨耆波逸提、波逸提、波罗提提舍尼、众学、灭诤。 ↩

7. Mohan Wijayaratna. Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts of the Theravāda Tradition. Trans. Claude Grangier and Steven Collins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. 比丘尼戒数见该书导言："the basic list of rules for monks (227) and nuns (311)"。 ↩↩↩

8. Richard F. Gombrich. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. London: Routledge, 1988. ↩↩

9. 冈布里奇前引 Theravāda Buddhism（第二版，London: Routledge, 2006）书内第 49 至 50 页：释迦族"were isolated to the extent that they were self-governing, and their polity was of a form not envisaged in brahminical theory"，其户长"met in council to discuss their problems and tried to reach unanimous decisions"，"Some historians call this an oligarchy, some a republic"；而据《大般涅槃经》所记佛语，"he modelled the organization of his Sangha on that of such communities as his own"，"In the Sangha he instituted no principle of rank but seniority, counted in that case from ordination"。布萨之制与此的对应见同书书内第 110 页："it answered the first principle he laid down for the prosperity of the Sangha when he modelled its constitution on that of 'tribal republics', acephalous polities (see above, pp. 49–50): that it hold 'full and frequent assemblies'"。须记明两点：其一，冈布里奇自道避用 tribe 一词，因梵、巴利并无对应词；其二，他所据是《大般涅槃经》里归于佛陀的话，属经内自述，非外部史料。 ↩

10. Maurice Walshe (trans.). The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995. （以法与律为师、小小戒可舍均见《大般涅槃经》DN 16） ↩↩

11. 比丘僧单独授具的明文见巴利《小品》比丘尼犍度〈Bhikkhunīupasampadānujānanaṃ〉（VRI 本《小品》第 404 节）：佛告诸比丘"anujānāmi, bhikkhave, bhikkhūhi bhikkhuniyo upasampādetuṃ"（我许比丘为比丘尼授具足戒；VRI 本作 upasampādetu''nti，此处依本书体例还原为不连读式）。其后虽立二部僧授戒之制，此许可未见明文废止。据此立论者见 Bhikkhu Anālayo. "The Legality of Bhikkhunī Ordination." Journal of Buddhist Ethics 20 (2013)，书内第 328 页："The central point of the sixth garudhamma and of the subsequent regulations is that the bhikkhus can confer higher ordination to female candidates. They can do so either in cooperation with a bhikkhunī order, if such is in existence, or else on their own, if no bhikkhunī order is in existence."；同氏 Bhikkhunī Ordination from Ancient India to Contemporary Sri Lanka（2018）书内第 194 页并谓，四条相关规定都是为便利比丘尼受戒而设，"This makes it rather doubtful that an interpretation of any of these rules as completely and definitely preventing the ordination of bhikkhunīs does justice to their intent."。菩提比丘 "The Revival of Bhikkhunī Ordination in the Theravāda Tradition"（2008；网页本，无原书页码）作："We can readily infer that under the exceptional circumstances when a Theravāda Bhikkhunī Sangha has vanished, Theravāda bhikkhus are entitled to take as a precedent the original case when there was no Bhikkhunī Sangha and revive the allowance that the Buddha gave to the bhikkhus to ordain bhikkhunīs on their own."，随即自设保留："I have to emphasize that this is an interpretation of the Vinaya, a liberal interpretation, and it is far from compelling."；他同文并指出，不可据此说佛陀曾永久许比丘单独授戒。反对一方的理据，见该文所附明昆长老之论。 ↩

12. 一九九八年菩提伽耶传戒的程序与争议，见 Bhikkhu Anālayo. Bhikkhunī Ordination from Ancient India to Contemporary Sri Lanka. New Taipei City: Āgama Research Group, Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts, 2018，〈The Candidates at the Bodhgayā Ordination〉一节；该书指出，因所请比丘尼出于法藏部而非上座部，与会比丘复分属诸派，故就律制而言，所授者"could not be considered Theravāda bhikkhunīs"。僧团初立的古史与法藏部律诸本译文，见氏著 The Foundation History of the Nuns' Order（Hamburg Buddhist Studies 6. Bochum: Projektverlag, 2016）。 ↩