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Terminology Concordance (for All Volumes)

This concordance collects key terms that recur throughout the book and gives their Chinese, Sanskrit (Skt.), Pali, and English forms together with brief explanations. The first occurrence of a term in each chapter supplies its original transliteration; fuller meanings can be consulted here. Entries are added as the writing progresses.

Where the Sanskrit and Pali forms are identical, the Pali column reads "same." Where Buddhism and Brahmanism emphasize different senses of a word, the explanation identifies the distinction.

I. Texts and Scriptures

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
吠陀 veda — Veda(s) Foundational scriptures of Brahmanism, divided into four collections
梨俱吠陀 Ṛgveda — Rigveda The oldest Veda, containing 1,028 hymns
娑摩吠陀 Sāmaveda — Samaveda Verses set to melodies, mostly drawn from the Rigveda
夜柔吠陀 Yajurveda — Yajurveda Sacrificial formulas and ritual instructions
阿闼婆吠陀 Atharvaveda — Atharvaveda Spells and rites for averting misfortune, together with speculative hymns
本集 saṃhitā same Saṃhitā The hymn-and-mantra layer of the Vedas
梵书 brāhmaṇa same Brāhmaṇa Prose explanations of sacrifice; note the form shared with "Brahmin"
森林书 āraṇyaka same Āraṇyaka Texts internalizing sacrifice and concerning forest or retreat practice
奥义书 upaniṣad same Upaniṣad The concluding Vedic texts exploring Brahman, self, and liberation
吠檀多 vedānta same Vedānta "End of the Veda," referring to the Upaniṣads and later to a philosophical school

II. Society and Caste

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
种姓（瓦尔纳） varṇa vaṇṇa varna / class The theoretical model of four large social classes
世袭群体（迦提） jāti jāti caste / birth-group An actual hereditary occupational group; a later formation
婆罗门 brāhmaṇa brāhmaṇa Brahmin Priestly caste
刹帝利 kṣatriya khattiya Kshatriya Warrior and ruling caste into which the Buddha was born
吠舍 vaiśya vessa Vaishya Caste of agriculturalists, herders, artisans, and merchants
首陀罗 śūdra sudda Shudra Servile caste
沙门 śramaṇa samaṇa renunciant / ascetic Renunciant movement pursuing liberation outside mainstream sacrificial religion
出离（出家） pravrajyā pabbajjā going forth Leaving home for a life of religious practice
雅利安 ārya ariya Aryan / noble Self-designation meaning "noble"; in Buddhism, ariya comes to mean a spiritually noble person
渡津者（祖师） tīrthaṅkara titthaṃkara ford-maker Jain title for a teacher who reveals the passage to liberation
活命派（邪命外道） ājīvika ājīvika Ājīvika Fatalist renunciant school founded by Makkhali Gosāla

III. Core Religious and Philosophical Concepts

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
祭祀 yajña yañña sacrifice Central Vedic fire-offering ritual
天则／宇宙秩序 ṛta — cosmic order Early Vedic concept of order, later absorbed into dharma
原人 puruṣa purisa Cosmic Man The being sacrificed to generate everything in the Puruṣa Sūkta
梵（终极实在） brahman brahman Brahman Ultimate reality of the Upaniṣads; distinguish from the priestly Brahmin
我／自我 ātman attan (attā) self The permanent self of the Upaniṣads; Buddhism teaches no-self
知／智 jñāna ñāṇa knowledge Knowledge that realizes truth; central to Upaniṣadic liberation
无明 avidyā avijjā ignorance Not knowing the Four Noble Truths; a root condition of saṃsāra
不害 ahiṃsā ahiṃsā non-harming Central Jain ethic and a general Indian principle
苦行 tapas tapa / tapo austerity Self-mortification intended to eliminate karma or advance practice
命（灵魂） jīva jīva soul / life-monad In Jainism, the substantial soul of a sentient being
漏 āsrava āsava influx / taint In Jainism, karmic matter flowing in; in Buddhism, an influx or taint of affliction
定命 niyati niyati destiny / fate Central concept of Ājīvika fatalism
顺世论 lokāyata lokāyata materialism Materialist and annihilationist current, also called Cārvāka
断见 ucchedavāda ucchedavāda annihilationism Complete annihilation at death, one of the two extremes avoided by the Buddha
常见 śāśvatavāda sassatavāda eternalism Belief in an abiding entity, the other extreme avoided by the Buddha
业 karman kamma karma Action and its consequences
轮回 saṃsāra same cycle of rebirth The continuing succession of birth and death
解脱 mokṣa; Buddhist vimukti vimutti liberation Release from saṃsāra; Buddhism more often uses vimutti or nirvāṇa
涅槃 nirvāṇa nibbāna nirvana Extinction of afflictions and release from saṃsāra
般涅槃 parinirvāṇa parinibbāna final nirvana Final passing of a buddha or arhat at death
觉悟（菩提） bodhi bodhi awakening The awakening realized by a buddha
中道 madhyamā pratipad majjhimā paṭipadā middle way Path of practice avoiding the extremes of sensual pleasure and self-mortification

IV. Personal Titles and Institutions

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
佛陀 buddha buddha Buddha / awakened one "Awakened one," originally Gautama and more generally anyone attaining buddhahood
释迦牟尼 Śākyamuni Sakyamuni Śākyamuni "Sage of the Śākya clan," an epithet of the Buddha
如来 tathāgata tathāgata Tathāgata "Thus come" or "thus gone," the Buddha's self-designation
魔 Māra Māra Māra A being who obstructs practice and symbolizes death and desire
僧伽 saṃgha saṅgha sangha / order Community of ordained practitioners
结集（合诵） saṃgīti saṅgīti communal recitation Collective recitation and settlement of scripture by the Saṅgha
诵者 bhāṇaka bhāṇaka reciter Monk specializing in memorizing and reciting a scriptural collection
部族共和 gaṇa(-saṅgha) gaṇa(-saṅgha) clan oligarchy Aristocratic assembly government of a clan polity such as the Śākyas
窣堵波（塔） stūpa thūpa stupa Dome-shaped structure enshrining relics

V. Central Categories of the Early Teaching

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
苦 duḥkha dukkha suffering / unsatisfactoriness Includes pain, suffering through change, and conditioned suffering
四谛 catvāri āryasatyāni cattāri ariyasaccāni four noble truths Suffering, origin, cessation, and path
渴爱 tṛṣṇā taṇhā craving Cause of suffering; sensual craving, craving for existence, and craving for nonexistence
八正道 āryāṣṭāṅga-mārga ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga noble eightfold path Path to suffering's cessation, gathered under ethics, concentration, and wisdom
三学 śīla-samādhi-prajñā sīla-samādhi-paññā the threefold training Ethical discipline, concentration, and wisdom
缘起 pratītya-samutpāda paṭicca-samuppāda dependent origination Everything arises through conditions; nothing is independently permanent
无常 anitya anicca impermanence All conditioned phenomena flow and decay
无我 anātman anattā non-self No permanent, autonomous self exists within or beyond body and mind
无记 avyākṛta avyākata undeclared A question set aside by the Buddha because it does not conduce to liberation
取 upādāna upādāna clinging Appropriation of the five aggregates and related objects
五蕴 pañca-skandha pañca-khandha five aggregates Form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness
色 rūpa rūpa form / matter Material body and matter derived from the four elements
受 vedanā vedanā feeling Painful, pleasant, and neutral feeling
想 saṃjñā saññā perception Marking, recognizing, and naming
行 saṃskāra saṅkhāra formations / volition Volitional constructions and mental factors, centered on intention
识 vijñāna viññāṇa consciousness Awareness that discriminates an object
我慢 asmi-māna asmimāna the conceit "I am" Latent illusion of "I am," not an observed entity
戏论 prapañca papañca conceptual proliferation The self-multiplication and entanglement of concepts once they unfold
无为 asaṃskṛta asaṅkhata unconditioned Unfabricated and not dependently arisen, as with nirvāṇa
出世间 lokottara lokuttara supramundane The level beyond mundane phenomena
有余／无余涅槃 sopadhiśeṣa / nirupadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa saupādisesa / anupādisesa-nibbāna nibbana with / without remainder Nirvāṇa of a living arhat and after an arhat's death
三相 tri-lakṣaṇa ti-lakkhaṇa three characteristics Impermanence, suffering, and no-self; the early threefold characterization
法印（三法印） dharma-mudrā — dharma-seal Later Northern Buddhist doxographical category, not an early self-designation
究竟法 paramārtha-dharma paramattha-dhamma ultimate reality / real dharma A phenomenon regarded by Abhidharma as ultimately real
方便（善巧方便） upāya(-kauśalya) upāya skillful means A method of teaching adapted to the person

VI. Saṅgha and Vinaya

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
比丘 bhikṣu bhikkhu monk Man who has received full ordination
比丘尼 bhikṣuṇī bhikkhunī nun Woman who has received full ordination
律 vinaya vinaya monastic discipline General name for Saṅgha regulations
波罗提木叉 prātimokṣa pātimokkha code of rules Collected precepts recited at the uposatha
布萨 upoṣadha uposatha observance day Fortnightly assembly for reciting rules and confessing offenses
自恣 pravāraṇā pavāraṇā invitation End-of-retreat invitation to identify one's offenses
具足戒（受具） upasaṃpadā upasampadā higher ordination Formal admission as a bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī
羯磨 (saṅgha-)karman (saṅgha-)kamma formal act Formal Saṅgha transaction conducted by prescribed procedure
结界 sīmā sīmā boundary Delimited area within which a formal act is performed
波罗夷 pārājika pārājika defeat / expulsion Four gravest offenses entailing expulsion
僧残 saṃghāvaśeṣa saṅghādisesa offence needing the sangha Next-most serious class of offense, requiring action by the Saṅgha
犍度 skandhaka khandhaka section (of Vinaya) Vinaya chapters concerning institutions and procedures
雨安居 varṣā vassa rains retreat Three-month rainy-season residence in one place
四众 catasraḥ parṣadaḥ catasso parisā fourfold assembly Bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, laymen, and laywomen
二部僧受戒 — ubhatosaṅghe upasampadā dual-sangha ordination Full bhikṣuṇī ordination conferred by both the bhikṣuṇī and bhikṣu Saṅghas

VII. Scriptures and Transmission

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
结集（合诵） saṃgīti saṅgīti communal recitation Collective recitation and settlement of scripture by the Saṅgha
三藏 tripiṭaka tipiṭaka three baskets Sūtra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma
阿毗达磨（论藏） abhidharma abhidhamma higher doctrine Later scholastic treatises differing among the schools
尼柯耶 nikāya nikāya collection The five large divisions of the Pali Sutta Piṭaka
阿含 āgama āgama Āgama Corresponding scriptural collections preserved in Chinese translation
十事 daśa vastūni dasa vatthūni ten points Ten relaxations of Vinaya disputed at Vaiśālī
论母 mātṛkā mātikā matrix / list Classified lists forming the source of Abhidharma outlines

VIII. Early Buddhist Schools

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
上座部 sthavira thera Sthavira / elders One side of the root division, the lineage of the "elders"
大众部 mahāsāṃghika mahāsaṅghika Mahāsāṃghika One side of the root division, the lineage of the "great majority"
部派 nikāya nikāya school / fraternity Ordination lineage combined with doctrinal orientation, not necessarily a schism
破僧 saṃghabheda saṅghabheda schism Separate Saṅgha acts by a community within one boundary, a grave Vinaya offense
说一切有部 sarvāstivāda sabbatthivāda Sarvāstivāda Major Sthavira school asserting the real existence of all three times
大天五事 (Mahādeva) pañca vastūni — five points of Mahādeva Five claims lowering the status of the arhat
补特伽罗 pudgala puggala person Vātsīputrīya person that is neither identical with nor separate from the aggregates
正量部 sāṃmitīya sammitiya Saṃmitīya Largest Vātsīputrīya branch, once highly influential in India
不可说 avaktavya avattabba inexpressible / indeterminate The person's relationship to the aggregates is neither identity nor difference
分别说部 vibhajyavāda vibhajjavāda Vibhajyavāda Sthavira branch from which Theravāda descends
经量部 sautrāntika — Sautrāntika Relies on sūtra rather than Abhidharma; teaches only present existence and seeds
法藏部 dharmaguptaka dhammaguttika Dharmaguptaka Transmitted the Four-Part Vinaya used for ordination in China
说出世部 lokottaravāda lokuttaravāda Lokottaravāda Mahāsāṃghika branch teaching the transcendent, supramundane nature of the Buddha

IX. Abhidharma and the Philosophy of the Early Schools

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
法（构成义） dharma dhamma dharma / factor Smallest ultimately real constitutive unit after analysis
自性（法体） svabhāva sabhāva own-nature A dharma's own nature or identity
作用 kāritra — activity / function Function performed by a dharma in the present moment
刹那 kṣaṇa khaṇa moment An exceedingly brief instant
实有／假有 dravya-sat / prajñapti-sat dabba-sat / paññatti-sat substantial / nominal existence What is real under final analysis versus what exists by designation
三世实有 sarvāstitva — the three times all exist A dharma's identity exists in past, present, and future
五位七十五法 — — seventy-five dharmas Sarvāstivāda classification of all phenomena into five categories and seventy-five dharmas
毗婆沙师 vaibhāṣika — Vaibhāṣika Kashmiri orthodoxy taking the Mahāvibhāṣā as authoritative
无表色 avijñapti-rūpa — unmanifest matter Subtle material dharma produced by karma and carrying it through continuity
得 prāpti patti possession Real dharma that binds another dharma to a sentient continuum
心不相应行 citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra citta-vippayutta-saṅkhāra dissociated formations Conditioned forces that are neither matter nor mind, such as possession, life faculty, and the four marks
种子 bīja bīja seed Functional state carrying karmic potential within the mental continuum until maturation
熏习 vāsanā vāsanā perfuming Habitual imprint left by action in a continuum, planting a seed
行相 ākāra ākāra aspect / image Form of an object appearing in consciousness; Sautrāntika uses it to infer external objects
有分（心） bhavāṅga bhavaṅga life-continuum Subconscious current posited by Theravāda that bears karmic result and sustains a life continuum
异熟 vipāka vipāka karmic result Result produced by the maturation of karma
有为 saṃskṛta saṅkhata conditioned Dependently fabricated phenomena subject to arising and cessation
心 citta citta mind / consciousness A momentary principal act of awareness
心所 caitta / caitasika cetasika mental factor Mental functions arising in association with mind
心路（过程） — citta-vīthi cognitive process Theravāda sequence of mind-moments through which cognition unfolds
二谛 saṃvṛti / paramārtha-satya sammuti / paramattha-sacca two truths Conventional truth of designation and ultimate truth

X. Other Indian Philosophical Schools and Debate

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
正理派 nyāya — Nyāya Brahmanical realist school emphasizing logic and epistemology
胜论派 vaiśeṣika — Vaiśeṣika Realist school of categories and atoms
数论 sāṃkhya — Sāṃkhya Dualism of puruṣa and prakṛti with twenty-five principles
弥曼差 mīmāṃsā — Mīmāṃsā Defends Vedic revelation, eternal sound, and sacrifice
极微 paramāṇu paramāṇu atom Smallest indivisible unit of matter
论义 vāda vāda formal debate Institution of public debate affecting reputation and patronage
因明（量论） hetuvidyā / pramāṇa — logic / epistemology Study of proof and instruments of knowledge

XI. Mahāyāna

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
大乘 mahāyāna — Mahāyāna "Great vehicle," the current centered on the bodhisattva path
声闻乘（小乘） śrāvakayāna (hīnayāna) — Śrāvakayāna Path to liberation of a hearer; "Hīnayāna" is a Mahāyāna pejorative, not a neutral term
菩萨 bodhisattva bodhisatta bodhisattva One who vows to attain buddhahood and practices the bodhisattva path
般若波罗蜜多 prajñāpāramitā — perfection of wisdom Mahāyāna's central perfection and the corpus of Perfection of Wisdom scriptures
佛语（佛说） buddhavacana buddhavacana word of the Buddha Redefined in Mahāyāna through the principle that whatever is well spoken is buddhavacana
法身 dharmakāya dhammakāya dharma-body Buddha's abiding body of Dharma or reality, grounding the Mahāyāna claim that the Buddha still teaches
空 śūnyatā suññatā emptiness Absence of intrinsic nature in all phenomena
一乘 ekayāna — one vehicle Three vehicles ultimately converge in the single Buddha vehicle in the Lotus Sūtra
法界 dharmadhātu dhammadhātu dharma-realm Huayan totality of infinitely interpenetrating phenomena
不二 advaya — non-duality Nonduality of such pairs as saṃsāra and nirvāṇa in the Vimalakīrti Sūtra
念佛 buddhānusmṛti buddhānussati recollection of the Buddha Remembering the Buddha or reciting a buddha's name, central to Pure Land practice
阿罗汉 arhat arahant arhat Highest śrāvaka fruition, with afflictions ended and rebirth overcome
菩提心 bodhicitta — mind of awakening Resolve to attain buddhahood for the sake of liberating sentient beings
波罗蜜（度） pāramitā pāramī perfection Bodhisattva practice, classified as six or ten perfections
慈悲 karuṇā (compassion) karuṇā compassion Compassion joined with wisdom on the bodhisattva path
十地 daśabhūmi — ten stages Ten grounds or stages of bodhisattva practice
三转法轮 tri-parivarta dharmacakra — three turnings of the wheel Mahāyāna classification: first śrāvaka teaching, second Prajñāpāramitā, third Yogācāra
判教 — — doctrinal classification Ranking teachings and judging whether their meaning is definitive

XII. Madhyamaka

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
中观 madhyamaka — Madhyamaka Nāgārjuna's lineage, using emptiness to refute intrinsic nature and maintain the middle way
四句 catuṣkoṭi catukkoṭi tetralemma Refutation of four alternatives: existent, nonexistent, both, and neither
归谬 prasaṅga — reductio Accepting an opponent's premise and deriving an absurd consequence
四颠倒 catur-viparyāsa cattāro vipallāsā four inversions Mistaking the impermanent, painful, selfless, and impure for permanent, pleasant, self, and pure
自续派 svātantrika — Svātantrika Holds that Madhyamaka should state independent proofs and allows conventional own-characteristics; associated with Bhāviveka
应成派 prāsaṅgika — Prāsaṅgika Uses only reductio and establishes no thesis; associated with Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti
自相 svalakṣaṇa salakkhaṇa own-characteristic Characteristic established from an object's own side; Prāsaṅgika denies it even conventionally

XIII. Yogācāra and Consciousness-Only

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
瑜伽行派 yogācāra — Yogācāra Consciousness-Only school in the Asaṅga–Vasubandhu lineage
唯识 vijñaptimātratā — consciousness-only All phenomena are manifestations of consciousness, with no independently existing external reality
阿赖耶识 ālaya-vijñāna — storehouse consciousness "Repository consciousness" containing karmic seeds and grounding other consciousnesses
末那识 manas-vijñāna — manas-consciousness Seventh consciousness, which appropriates the storehouse as "self" and grounds self-grasping
三性 trisvabhāva — three natures Imagined, dependent, and consummate natures
遍计所执性 parikalpita-svabhāva — imagined nature False grasping of dependently arisen things as possessing fixed intrinsic nature
依他起性 paratantra-svabhāva — dependent nature Actual dependently arisen condition of phenomena, which is illusion-like
圆成实性 pariniṣpanna-svabhāva — consummate nature True emptiness of phenomena seen once imagined grasping is removed
转依 āśraya-parāvṛtti — transformation of the basis Thorough transformation of the fundamental basis, the storehouse consciousness, at maturity of practice
三身 trikāya — three bodies Dharma-body, enjoyment body, and emanation body
报身 saṃbhogakāya — enjoyment body Buddha body seen by bodhisattvas in pure lands and produced through accumulated merit
化身 nirmāṇakāya — emanation body Buddha body manifested in the world according to beings' needs; historical Gautama is often classified here
无住涅槃 apratiṣṭhita-nirvāṇa — non-abiding nirvāṇa A bodhisattva abides neither in saṃsāra nor nirvāṇa but remains in the world through compassion and wisdom
烦恼障 kleśāvaraṇa — afflictive obstruction Afflictive barrier obstructing liberation
所知障 jñeyāvaraṇa — cognitive obstruction Subtle cognitive barrier obstructing omniscience and buddhahood
自证分 svasaṃvedana — self-cognition Consciousness's immediate awareness of its own activity, central to Yogācāra argument

XIV. Tathāgatagarbha and Buddha-Nature

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
如来藏 tathāgata-garbha — tathāgata-garbha Garbha means both embryo and container: awareness innate to sentient beings and covered by afflictions
佛性 buddhadhātu / buddhatā — buddha-nature Inner basis on which every sentient being can attain buddhahood
自性清净心 prakṛti-pariśuddha-citta — naturally pure mind Mind is originally pure; afflictions are adventitious obscurations, not its essence
客尘烦恼 āgantuka-kleśa — adventitious defilement Removable affliction that comes from outside and obscures pure mind
本觉 — — original awakening In Chinese tathāgatagarbha traditions, the condition in which sentient beings are originally awakened
始觉 — — actualized awakening Awakening actually manifested through practice, contrasted with original awakening
一乘（如来藏义） ekayāna — one vehicle Tathāgatagarbha teaching that everyone can attain buddhahood

XV. Late Indian Buddhism and Epistemology

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
量（认识工具） pramāṇa — valid cognition Standard determining whether cognition is valid, central to Dignāga and Dharmakīrti
现量 pratyakṣa — direct perception Immediate perception without inference
比量 anumāna — inference Inference from a sign, using thesis, reason, and example
共相 sāmānya-lakṣaṇa — universal Referent of words and concepts, not directly perceived; for Dharmakīrti, functions only through exclusion
遮诠 apoha — exclusion / apoha Dharmakīrti's claim that word meaning is established by excluding what is not X, not by denoting a positive entity
金刚乘 vajrayāna — Vajrayāna Mahāyāna current seeking rapid attainment through tantric practices
密续 tantra — tantra Esoteric text containing ritual, visualization, mudrā, and mantra
坛城 maṇḍala — maṇḍala Cosmic arrangement of buddhas and bodhisattvas, central to tantric practice
咒（真言） mantra — mantra Sound with a particular efficacy and a central element of esoteric practice
那烂陀 Nālandā — Nālandā India's foremost Mahāyāna center of learning from the fifth through twelfth centuries

XVI. Southern Buddhism

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
南传上座部 — theravāda Theravāda Sthavira tradition using Pali as its canonical language, transmitted through Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia
巴利语 — pāli Pāli Canonical language of Southern Buddhism, close to Middle Indic dialects
止禅 śamatha samatha calm-abiding / serenity Meditative cultivation aimed at concentration and absorption
观禅（内观） vipaśyanā vipassanā insight Contemplation of impermanence, suffering, and no-self as they are, generating insight knowledge
安止定 — appanā-samādhi absorption Concentration in which mind is fully immersed in a meditation sign
近行定 — upacāra-samādhi access concentration Concentration approaching but not yet entering absorption
禅相 — nimitta (paṭibhāga-nimitta) meditation sign Mental image arising during calm practice; its counterpart sign marks absorption
业处 — kammaṭṭhāna meditation object Object of meditation, classified into forty types
七清净 — satta-visuddhi seven stages of purification Visuddhimagga sequence of seven purifications from ethics to wisdom
十六观智 — soḷasa-vipassanā-ñāṇa sixteen insight knowledges Sixteen-step Visuddhimagga sequence from preliminary insight to path and fruition
十观染 — vipassanupakkilesa ten corruptions of insight Experiences such as light and rapture that can be mistaken for fruition during insight practice
纯观行者 — sukkha-vipassaka dry insight practitioner One who attains fruition through direct insight without first cultivating absorption
旧注 — (Sinhala) aṭṭhakathā old commentaries Sinhala commentaries preserved at Mahāvihāra before Buddhaghosa and later translated into Pali

XVII. Chinese Buddhism

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
格义 — — matching concepts Early practice of explaining Buddhist terms through indigenous Chinese concepts, including Lao-Zhuang thought
理 — — principle / noumenon Ontological level in Huayan and Chan, contrasted with phenomena or events
事 — — phenomena / thing Phenomenal level in "nonobstruction of principle and phenomena" and "nonobstruction among phenomena"
圆融 — — interpenetration Huayan's unobstructed mutual inclusion of all phenomena
性宗／相宗 — — nature school / character school Chinese distinction between Madhyamaka as emptiness of nature and Yogācāra as characteristics of phenomena
顿悟／渐修 — — sudden awakening / gradual cultivation Chan controversy over whether awakening is sudden or requires gradual practice
公案 — — kōan / gong'an Encounter case not solvable by logic and used in Chan to break discrimination
话头 — — keyword / kōan phrase Central phrase investigated in kanhua Chan, such as "No" or "Does a dog have buddha-nature?"
神佛分离 — — shinbutsu bunri Meiji Japanese policy forcibly separating Shintō and Buddhism from 1868 onward
人间佛教 — — humanistic Buddhism Twentieth-century Chinese Buddhist reform represented by Taixu and Yinshun

XVIII. Tibetan Buddhism

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
大手印 mahāmudrā — mahāmudrā Highest Kagyu view: the nature of mind is originally pure and liberation is non-grasping
大圆满 atiyoga / rdzogs chen — Dzogchen / Great Perfection Nyingma's highest view and practice, directly introducing naked intrinsic awareness
本觉（大圆满义） rigpa (Tib.) — rigpa / awareness Dzogchen's naked intrinsic awareness, primordially pure and unobscured
伏藏 gter ma — treasure text Esoteric text said to have been concealed by Padmasambhava and later discovered by a revealer
掘藏师 gter ston — treasure revealer Adept who discovers treasures, distinctive to Nyingma
转世活佛 sprul sku — tulku Person identified as the reincarnation of an adept, a distinctive Tibetan institution
自空见 rang stong — self-emptiness Prāsaṅgika position that every phenomenon, including tathāgatagarbha, is empty of intrinsic nature
他空见 gzhan stong — other-emptiness Jonang and related view that ultimate reality or buddha-nature is empty of adventitious afflictions but not empty of itself
前弘期／后弘期 — — early / later diffusion Two phases of Buddhism's entry into Tibet, seventh–ninth centuries and after the tenth century
桑耶辩论 — — Samye debate (792–794 CE) Public Tibetan imperial debate between Chinese Chan and Indian Madhyamaka

XIX. Modern Buddhism

Chinese Sanskrit Pali English Brief Explanation
佛教现代主义 — — Buddhist modernism Orientation since the nineteenth century reconstructing Buddhism through rationality, science, and demythologization
入世佛教 — — engaged Buddhism Contemporary movement combining Buddhist practice with social action
批判佛教 — — critical Buddhism Japanese movement of Matsumoto Shirō, Hakamaya Noriaki, and others arguing that tathāgatagarbha is not orthodox Buddhism
佛教学（现代学术） — — Buddhist Studies Academic field studying Buddhism through history, linguistics, and philology