04-1990-2020年的新动向

斯里兰卡。1996年，在斯里兰卡比丘与韩国僧团的参与下，十名斯里兰卡女性在印度鹿野苑接受比丘尼具足戒。1998年，比丘尼受戒开始在斯里兰卡本土举行，此后受戒人数逐渐增加。三大派系的长老会议官方均未承认，惟各派中有长老公开支持；2025年6月，最高法院判令以比丘尼身份发给国民身份证，政府层面始见转变。

西方的推动力。西方的佛教女性修行者和女性主义学者是推动比丘尼受戒国际讨论的重要力量。菩提比丘（Bhikkhu Bodhi）等影响力较大的巴利文学者公开支持比丘尼受戒的法律合法性，在南传内部形成了有别于官方立场的声音。阿那拉约比丘（Bhikkhu Anālayo）对巴利律典和相关梵文文本的比较研究，从学术层面支持了比丘尼受戒的可行性。

- Ann Gleig. American Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Modernity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019.（2010年代以来美国佛教的新动向；含数字化、性别、种族等议题的综合分析）

安贝德卡运动的分析，见 Christopher S. Queen, "Dr. Ambedkar and the Hermeneutics of Buddhist Liberation," in Christopher S. Queen and Sallie B. King (eds.), Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany: SUNY Press, 1996, pp. 45–71。该章书内 46 页记皈依之后的规模："his conversion to Buddhism in 1956 triggered a mass movement, as the number of Buddhists reported by the Indian census increased over a thousand percent in a decade, from 181,000 in 1951 to 3,250,000 in 1961"（所给是一九六一年普查之数，近年规模该章不及）；书内 59 页言其社群"narrowly, the Mahars of Maharashtra, more broadly, the Untouchables of India"；书内 46 页以其说比于二十世纪解放神学，谓其 dhamma "is directed to the dispossessed"。书内 47 页记其一九五〇年在《摩诃菩提》刊文所立宗教四准则，其一即 "offer liberty, equality, and fraternity"，下接 "He taught equality, equality not between man and man only but between man and woman"，正文所举平等一项据此。该章不涉无我与缘起（anatta、no-self、dependent origination 诸词全章零命中），正文所举这两项思想资源另需其书。安贝德卡运动的地方史，见 Eleanor Mae Zelliot. Dr. Ambedkar and the Mahar Movement. 博士论文，宾夕法尼亚大学，1969：书内 236 页记一九五六年十月那格浦尔皈依大会，会场人群 "approached half a million people"，市内四十五处登记点录得六万人，而 "all available figures give the actual number at the ceremonies at three to five lakhs"；卷末地图二、三（书内 303、304 页）系据一九六一年普查所绘，逐县列马哈拉施特拉的佛教徒比例与马哈尔转信比例。该书书内 279 页另记同年新党（National Republican Party）纲领为 "liberty, equality and fraternity"，与上引一九五〇年宗教四准则一教一政，引时须分。正文所举无我、缘起两项，此三书俱不载其与出身等级、社会条件之连：安贝德卡本人书中确以无我立说（"there is no such thing as a soul… his theory of the soul is called Anatta, i.e., non-soul"，见 B. R. Ambedkar. The Buddha and His Dhamma. Bombay: Siddharth College Publication, 1957），而未及于此推论。正文三项思想资源之分寸：平等一项有据，即上引一九五〇年宗教四准则（新党纲领之语见 Zelliot 书内 279 页，一教一政，勿相混）；无我、缘起二项系本书就安贝德卡取佛教之由所作的引申，非上举诸书明文，Queen 1996 与 Zelliot 1969 通检 anatta、non-self、dependent origination 俱零命中。规模一层，所见止于一九六一年普查，正文故系于皈依运动以来，不作今日之数。

Thich Nhat Hanh. Interbeing: The 14 Mindfulness Trainings of Engaged Buddhism. 4th ed. Berkeley: Parallax Press.（本书所据为第四版；第三版题作 Interbeing: Fourteen Guidelines for Engaged Buddhism, 1998，副题与本版不同，引用时须认准版次）。生平诸事此书不担，另有出处：一九六七年诺贝尔和平奖提名见 NobelPrize.org 提名档案，Year: 1967，Number: 48-0，Nominee 作 “Thich Nhat Hahn”（档案如此拼写），Nominator 作 “Martin Luther King”，并附金氏一九六七年一月二十五日致挪威诺贝尔研究所提名函；圆寂一事见梅村官方讣告（二〇二二年一月二十二日），作 “at 01:30hrs on January 22, 2022 at Từ Hiếu Temple in Huế, Vietnam, at the age of 95”，并注明初发布时记为午夜，数小时后据顺化方面详情改为正式宣告之时。越战期间的救援与和平运动，见 Sallie B. King. Socially Engaged Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press（Dimensions of Asian Spirituality 丛书）。该书书内 4 页记其为越南"挣扎运动"（Struggle Movement）最重要的思想领袖，并记 "He cofounded the School of Youth for Social Service to train young Buddhists to serve the needs of the Vietnamese people, particularly in the countryside"，战时倡"第三条道路"（Third Way），不附北，不附南，不与任何一方为敌；书内 80 页记该运动于止战之外另有防护、救援与重建诸事，其最著者为僧尼赴将成战场之村落疏散居民。梅村之创立與所在，见梅村官方长传 Zen Master Thich Nhat Hanh: A Biography（plumvillage.org，正文末注明本版更新于 2020 年 10 月 21 日）〈Creation of Plum Village〉一节："in 1982 Thầy and his followers found an old farm and land in the Dordogne Valley of southwest France. There, amid rolling hills and vineyards, they established a mindfulness practice center, which became known as 'Plum Village' after the 1,250 plum trees they soon planted in the rich soil."；梅村法国本部道场页亦记 "What began in 1982 as a small, rustic farmstead, has today grown into Europe's largest Buddhist monastery, with over 200 resident monks and nuns... in four different hamlets"。一处措辞须留意：该长传作 Dordogne Valley（多尔多涅河谷），非 département（省）；三件官方页（长传、本部道场页、讣告）无一书省名，本部道场页只出地址 437 Chemin du Pey, 24240 Thénac。正文因此从其所本作"法国西南部的多尔多涅河谷"，不作"省"。著作流布之数，两件官方口径不一，并录于此：上引长传末章作 "He has sold over three million books in the U.S. alone, and tens of millions worldwide"；而 Thich Nhat Hanh Foundation 生平页作 "published over 100 titles"、"He sold over five million books in the United States alone"。二者皆官方而美国一数有三百万與五百万之异，当系年月之差（长传注明版本日期，基金会页未署）。本书正文只作"数以百万计的读者"，两说皆足担之；若日后要标确数，须连同所据之版本日期一并标明。该长传并记《A Rose for Your Pocket》越南一种即售逾百万册，《Old Path White Clouds》译逾二十种语言。（入世佛教的核心理念阐述；一行禅师的系统表述之一）

Richard J. Davidson and Sharon Begley. The Emotional Life of Your Brain: How Its Unique Patterns Affect the Way You Think, Feel, and Live—and How You Can Change Them. New York: Hudson Street Press, 2012.（神经科学与禅修研究的通俗介绍；更学术性的来源见 Davidson et al., Science 302 (2003): 1158—1159）。以上只担保戴维森研究室一支。汤普森把佛教与西方现象学、认知科学三者并置，见 Francisco J. Varela, Evan Thompson and Eleanor Rosch. The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Rev. ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016（初版 1991），汤普森修订版导言自述原书用意，书内第 xxi 页；同一导言述瓦雷拉晚年的"神经现象学"纲领，谓其以西方现象学与正念修习并用于研究意识经验所关联的大尺度脑动力学，并言汤普森本人新著即以之为框架，书内第 xxii 页。瓦雷拉原文据该导言所列为 "Neurophenomenology: A Methodological Remedy for the Hard Problem," Journal of Consciousness Studies 3 (1996): 330–350。扎哈维一支见 Mark Siderits, Evan Thompson and Dan Zahavi (eds.). Self, No Self? Perspectives from Analytical, Phenomenological, and Indian Traditions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011，扎哈维自撰〈The Experiential Self: Objections and Clarifications〉（书内第 56—78 页）与阿尔巴哈里、德雷福斯的佛教无我论相诘，并论西方现象学与佛教同为"a disciplined first-person approach to consciousness"的会通（书内第 70 页）。

David L. McMahan and Erik Braun (eds.). Meditation, Buddhism, and Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.（佛教与科学对话的批判性评估；包含支持者和批评者的多元视角）。该书〈The Backlash〉一节给公众叙事过度简化一说列了两组数据：美国卫生与公众服务部 2007 年报告检视 813 项禅修研究，断其疗效"beset with uncertainty"且"cannot be established based on the current literature"，病在禅修本身缺乏明确的概念与操作定义（Ospina et al. 2007）；约翰霍普金斯一组 2014 年综述 47 项研究、共 3,515 人，谓焦虑、抑郁、疼痛之改善证据中等，而情绪、注意、物质使用、饮食、睡眠、体重诸项证据低或不足。方法论一层，Evan Thompson 一章针对《科学美国人》所刊禅修神经科学一文的脑区配当，提两论：把禅修所涉的认知功能配到特定脑区或网络，"it is empirically unwarranted"；把正念叠加到特定脑区，则是范畴错置。其断语作"Attention is not inside the brain; it is a way in which the whole person… is engaged in a task"，并据 Anderson 与 Pessoa 的神经影像数据库研究，谓脑区与认知功能之间"no one-to-one correspondence"。该书为 电子书，无版心页码，按章节引

树木受戒的实录与仪轨分析，见 Susan M. Darlington. "The Ordination of a Tree: The Buddhist Ecology Movement in Thailand." Ethnology 37, no. 1 (1998): 1–15（本书所据为此篇）。该文详记 1991 年 7 月南府（Nan）一场受戒：仪式由传统的拖帕帕（thaut phaa paa，献森林袈裟）改造而来，"at the same point in which a new monk would be presented with his robes, two monks wrapped orange robes around the tree's trunk, marking its sanctification"；其创制处在于"the tree ordained was not already treated as sacred but was made so through the ritual"，与素来即以圣布缠身的菩提树不同。该文自设两层限，宜一并记下。其一，"the monks did not claim to be fully ordaining the tree, as that status is reserved for humans only"，仪式的效力落在损德（baap，an act of demerit）一义上，作者未言砍树等同杀僧。其二，保护之效在该文里不系于袈裟一物：村中另立委员会管林、巡守已受戒之地，并配自给型农业等经济替代，因为"protecting the forest simply by denying the villagers access to it would not be successful"；全文结语亦只作"The extent and success of these efforts, and the true direction of the changes involved, remain to be seen"。扩散一线该文可按：帕耶府 Phrakhru Manas 是"the monk credited with performing the first symbolic ordination of a tree"，1990 年初 Phrakhru Pitak 往访之，同年六月于家乡社区林首办，1991 年七月于南府再办；1991 年三月素叻他尼府另有五十余名僧俗入国家公园，为受水坝威胁的雨林大树遍缠僧袍。首次树木受戒的年份该文未给，只作"the adoption of the issue by the ecology monks beginning in the late 1980s"；今据同作者 2012 年专著补之：其书记首次树木受戒办于一九八八年，作"Since the first tree ordination performed for forest conservation in 1988 the rituals have become increasingly accepted and popular across Thailand"，又记帕耶府 Phrakhru Manas 之事作"Besides performing the first tree ordination as an environmental tool in 1988"；扩散一层作"Within a decade of the performance of the first tree ordination, this knowledge entered mainstream vocabulary"，并举一九九六至九七年跨部门联办的大规模受戒为其影响之显例。正文"1980年代末生态僧接手此题，1990年代以后扩散"于此有据。惟该书另记一层，宜并存：其书谓首办此礼之僧本无受戒一树之意，所行者是为林地與树苗祝圣以唤起人对林木的依赖之感。佛教与生态之总体背景另见 Donald K. Swearer. Ecology and the Environment: Perspectives from the Humanities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Divinity School, 2009；该书不载树木受戒（通检 tree ordination 与 Darlington 皆零命中），其所举泰国二例为一九八六年素贴山缆车之争与一九九七年金融危机后的充足经济（sufficiency economy）之说。

缅甸十戒尼的历史与近况，参 Hiroko Kawanami. Renunciation and Empowerment of Buddhist Nuns in Myanmar-Burma: Building a Community of Female Faithful. Leiden: Brill, 2013.（缅甸十戒尼传统的最全面学术研究）。上文所称的国家僧伽最高委员会，川浪书内 112 页作缅文罗马转写"Naingandaw Thangha Maha Nayaká Ahpwé"，并译作"National Committee of Supreme Sangha Council"，谓其由政府中央工作委员会所任命的四十七位耆宿学僧组成，"became the highest decision-making body for the sangha"；书内 114 至 115 页的组织图列其为"Supreme Sangha Council (State Level) 47 Members"。其对比丘尼受戒的立场，见书内 109 页第四章开篇："Today there is no ordained bhikkhunī lineage in Myanmar. The highest Buddhist authority: the Supreme Sangha Council has made an official statement in 2004 reaffirming this position of the sangha."。比丘尼一门的裁断另见 Hiroko Kawanami. “Buddhist Nuns in Myanmar.” St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology（2025 年 8 月 22 日刊）：一尼众二〇〇三年赴斯里兰卡受具一案，经僧团最高裁断机构与执事委员会议决 “the bhikkhunī order could not be revived in Myanmar”，自此 “all discussions on the nuns’ full ordination were closed”；该文并记二〇二四年宗教部登记之尼众七万二千人，全国独立尼院逾四千所。原注所引 International Committee for Nuns 之报告本书未据该来源复核，今删。

菩提比丘的公开表态见 Bhikkhu Bodhi. “The Revival of Bhikkhunī Ordination in the Theravāda Tradition” (2008)，后收 Thea Mohr 與 Jampa Tsedroen 編 Dignity and Discipline: Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns. Boston: Wisdom, 2010。该文自陈其旨："Hence I will be giving, not explanations of how a bhikkhunī ordination can be revived, but justifications for the procedures that have already been used to revive it."；论《比丘尼犍度》授权一节则曰："I also regard it as one that we can employ as a legal precedent to solve our present problem."。惟其结论较正文所述为持平："As I see it, the Vinaya cannot be read in any fixed manner as either unconditionally permitting or forbidding a revival of the Bhikkhunī Sangha. It yields these conclusions only as a result of interpretation."。阿那拉约一侧见 Bhikkhu Anālayo. "The Legality of Bhikkhunī Ordination." Journal of Buddhist Ethics 20 (2013)；及同氏 The Foundation History of the Nuns' Order（Hamburg Buddhist Studies，附法藏部律等诸本译文）。